The discovery and settlement of Aotearoa

Māori arrival and settlement

Archaeological evidence supports the discovery of Aotearoa by Māori as early as 1280. The the main wave of Māori settlers arriving from Polynesia between AD 1320 and 1350. They brought a way of life, consisting of protocols, customs and language, to a land previously uninhabited by humans.

Māori introduced many exotic plant crops and animals including the first terrestrial predatory mammals, the kiore (Pacific rat) and kuri (dog).

Within a few hundred years, sustained harvesting resulted in the extinction of at least 28 known bird species including:

• all nine species of moa
• most of the large meaty birds like the New Zealand goose and adzebills
• North Island takahe
• several species of penguin.

With the progressive extinction of many of the large birds through overharvesting, Māori increasingly concentrated on the marine and coastal environments for protein. Marine mammals like the New Zealand and Chatham Island sea lion (also known as pakake, whakahao and kake/female sea lion) were once abundant along the coast. They were harvested them to extinction on the mainland by 1500. Harvesting also dramatically reduced the geographical range of the oioi/fur seal. The numbers of seabirds that nested in colonies also declined sharply near populated coastal areas.

Populations of other smaller, flightless and poor flying species were also heavily targeted by Maori for food and/or became extinct or declined significantly due to predation by kiore/Pacific rats. The introduction of kiore also resulted in the:

• complete disappearance of tuatara from the mainland
• extinction of at least three frogs
• devastation of invertebrate ecology.

The loss of mature forest

During this same period, fire removed large areas of the original forest cover, especially on the drier eastern sides of the two main islands. Some areas were accidentally burned. Other fires were intentional to clear land for cultivation and villages, and make it easier to hunt for food like burrowing seabirds.

Cleared areas, if not repeatedly burned, regenerated into bracken and scrublands. This provided habitat for some birds, reptiles and invertebrates. However, habitat for species that prefer mature forest was significantly reduced.

Expanding matauranga Māori

Well-known whakataukī (oral proverbs) show the growing awareness amongst Māori of the ecological and social implications of species extinction. Proverbs like 'Mate ā moa' (dead like the moa) and 'Kua ngaro i te ngaro o te moa' (perished as the moa perished) date between 1500-1650.

Over time, matauranga Māori (collective knowledge) of this new environment deepened. For example, Māori used rāhui (a temporary closed season) to allow stocks of various species to recover.

Māori have formed a deep understanding of nature over hundreds of years of occupation. Today we look to them to help guide the protection of species and restoration of ecosystems in Aotearoa.

Pakeha arrival and settlement

The arrival of Pakeha (Europeans) in the late 18th century accelerated environmental change and another cascade of extinctions.

Introduction of new predators

When Cook arrived in Aotearoa, his ships brought Norway rats. Cats and mice established soon after, arriving with the earliest European settlers during the sealing and whaling era. Ship rats were later introduced around 1850 and are now the most common rat species in New Zealand.

These predatory mammals quickly spread and caused many species, which had survived the arrival of Māori, to go extinct. This included the introduced kiore (Pacific rat) which declined due to competition and predation by European mice and rats. Today in Aotearoa, kiore only live on a few offshore islands and in some remote areas of the South Island.

Rapid changes in land use

Early European settlers quickly overexploited New Zealand's natural resources, such as seals, whales and timber. In the early 1800s, they discovered kauri wood was perfect for ship spars. Its beauty and durability then made it highly sought after for buildings.

In the 19th century, much of the northern kauri forests was milled or lost to wildfires. Additionally, miners altered the landscape in search of gold, particularly in the latter half of the century.

As more immigrants arrived, more forests were cleared and wetlands drained for farming. This 'breaking in' process turned natural areas - wetlands, tussock grasslands, scrub, and forests - into pasture. As a result, natural vegetation cover dropped to about a quarter of its original size.

In 1840, about 60 per cent of the land was indigenous forest. Now, only 26 per cent remains. Pasture and horticulture cover 45 per cent. Exotic plantations make up 6 per cent. Native scrub is less than 7 per cent. Wetlands have dropped to 10 per cent of their original size. 

Cultural acclimatisation

In addition to farm livestock, European settlers introduced many exotic plants and animals, for sentimental and practical reasons. 

From 1830, rabbits were released for food and fur but soon became pests. They competed with livestock for pasture and damaged soils with their burrowing.

In the same way, brushtail possums were brought from south-eastern Australia and Tasmania in the 1850s to start a fur industry. Early protection helped them thrive and they too soon became pests. They consumed pasture, destroyed native forests and threatened vulnerable wildlife.

In the 1880s, three mustelid species - stoats, ferrets, and weasels - were introduced to control rabbit populations. Experts had predicted their limited effect on rabbits and warned about the devastating impact on native wildlife. Despite this, the introduction of hares, hedgehogs and several wallaby species followed in the late 19th century. These, too, all became pest species.

Game species like deer, chamois, and Himalayan thar were introduced. Goats and pigs brought here quickly became feral and herds of wild horses established in some areas. These grazing and browsing mammals have greatly altered native forests, grasslands and alpine ecosystems, which had evolved for millennia without herbivores.

Trout, salmon, and other exotic fish were introduced to rivers and lakes for recreation. This reduced native fish species through predation and competition.

Hundreds of species of exotic herbs, shrubs and trees from various parts of the world were introduced to farms, towns and gardens. About 40 species of mainly European birds were released into the wild. Some of these are now among the most abundant bird species in the country, for example the mallard, European blackbird, chaffinch and starling.

All these introductions increased our country’s likeness to Britain and Europe. They have also changed Aotearoa’s ecology permanently and set it on a completely different evolutionary path.